India’s Agricultural Landscape
Questions and activities
Why do farmers in Kerala grow rice while farmers in Punjab grow mostly wheat? What would happen if they
swapped?
Match the following:
Why do certain crops thrive in specific regions?
How has modern technology helped farmers?
Why is sustainable agriculture important? Write a short note on this.
Name some challenges that farmers face today. What might be their impact for people?
Have a debate in class on the topic “Traditional irrigation methods are better than modern ones.”
Write a short essay describing what farming might be like when you are 60 years old. You could also draw / paint a picture to illustrate what you envision.
Form small groups and discuss the issues affecting the Ganga basin. Prepare a presentation proposing your solutions and their rationale (your reasons). Share and discuss in class. Your teacher will guide you in this
exercise.
Looking at the crops listed in the section ‘Echoes from the Past’, which ones do you find in use in your home? What conclusion can you draw from your observations?
.What are the main characteristics of Indian agriculture?
Ans – Indian agriculture is mainly monsoon dependent and labor intensive. It is characterized by small landholdings. A wide variety of crops are grown due to diverse soil and climate conditions.
Indian agriculture has the following main characteristics:
- Dependence on monsoon – Rainfall largely determines crop production (e.g., rice cultivation).
- Diversity of crops – Rice, wheat, millets, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, tea, and coffee are grown.
- Subsistence farming – Farmers produce mainly for family consumption.
- Mixed farming – Crop cultivation is combined with livestock rearing.
- Seasonal agriculture – Crops are grown in Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid seasons.
- Low productivity – Yield per hectare is relatively low compared to developed countries.
2. How are farming, climate, soil, and water inter related?
Ans – Farming depends directly on climate, soil, and water. Climate decides the type of crops grown because temperature and rainfall affect plant growth. Soil provides nutrients and support to crops, so different crops grow better in different types of soil. Water is needed for irrigation and crop survival, especially when rainfall is low. If climate, soil, and water are suitable, farming becomes more productive.
3. How can traditional practices and contemporary ones complement each other?
Ans – Traditional practices and contemporary methods can work well together in agriculture. Traditional practices help in protecting the environment, improving soil fertility, and saving seeds, while contemporary methods increase production and efficiency using machines, improved seeds, and irrigation. When both are used together, farming becomes more productive, sustainable, and cost-effective.
NCERT QUESTIONS:-
Why do farmers in Kerala grow rice while farmers in Punjab grow mostly wheat? What would happen if they swapped?
Ans – Farmers in Kerala grow rice because the state has heavy rainfall, high humidity, and clayey soil, which are suitable for rice cultivation. Rice needs a lot of water and warm climate.
Farmers in Punjab grow mostly wheat because the climate is moderate, rainfall is less, and the soil is fertile alluvial soil. Wheat needs cool weather, less water, and well-drained soil.
If they Swapped:-
If farmers in Kerala grew wheat and farmers in Punjab grew rice, the crops would not grow well. Wheat would be damaged by excess water and heat in Kerala, while rice in Punjab would need much more water, leading to water shortage and poor yield.
Why do certain crops thrive in specific regions?
Ans – Certain crops thrive in specific regions because they need particular climate, soil, and water conditions to grow well. Differences in temperature, rainfall, soil type, and availability of water make some regions suitable for certain crops but not for others. When these conditions match a crop’s needs, it grows healthy and gives a good yield.
How has modern technology helped Why is sustainable agriculture important? Write a short note on this.
Ans – Modern technology has helped agriculture by introducing better seeds, machines, fertilizers, and irrigation systems, which increase crop production and save time and labor. Tractors, harvesters, and drip irrigation make farming faster and more efficient.
Sustainable agriculture is important because it helps protect soil, water, and the environment. It ensures that farming can continue for a long time without harming natural resources and provides food for future generations.
Name some challenges that farmers face today. What might be their impact for people?
Ans – Farmers today face many challenges such as irregular rainfall, droughts and floods, poor soil fertility, and pest attacks. Many farmers also struggle with high cost of seeds and fertilizers, lack of irrigation, and low market prices for their crops.
These problems reduce crop production, which can lead to food shortages, higher food prices, and financial difficulties for farmers. As a result, people may face scarcity of food and increased cost of living.
Have a debate in class on the topic “Traditional irrigation methods are better than modern ones.”
Ans – Do it yourself
Write a short essay describing what farming might be like when you are 60 years old. You could also draw / paint a picture to illustrate what you envision.
Ans – Do it yourself
Form small groups and discuss the issues affecting the Ganga basin. Prepare a presentation proposing your solutions and their rationale (your reasons). Share and discuss in class. Your teacher will guide you in this exercise.
Ans – Do it yourself
Looking at the crops listed in the section ‘Echoes from the Past’, which ones do you find in use in your home? What conclusion can you draw from your observations?
Ans – The crops mentioned in the section “Echoes from the Past” that are commonly used in my home are rice, wheat, pulses, and barley. Rice and wheat are used daily as staple foods, while pulses are used for making dal.
Conclusion:
This shows that many crops grown and used in the past are still important in our daily life today. It also tells us that agriculture has been an essential part of human life since ancient times.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
India’s Agricultural Landscape
Farming or agriculture is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. It encompasses the preparation of soil, cultivation of plants, rearing of livestock, In some areas, farmers also practice pisciculture (fish rearing) or rear cocoons to extract silk thread. Very broadly, the term ‘agriculture’ encompasses farming, animal husbandry (raising livestock), forestry, and horticulture.
The word agriculture comes from Latin. Agri means field and culture means to cultivate. The Government of India classifies economic activities related to agriculture as ‘agriculture and allied activities’. Broadly, this includes agriculture, livestock related activities, beekeeping (apiculture), fisheries, rearing of silkworms and preparing silk yarn, and fibre production, such as cotton and hemp.
A little over 18 per cent of the country’s total value of goods and services produced in a year (gross domestic product) comes from agriculture and allied activities (2022-2023). Approximately 46 per cent of India’s working population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood (2022-2023).
in rural areas of India, more than 75 per cent of people working in the agriculture sector are women (2025).
Threshing: Removing the edible grain from the straw or husk, manually or using a machine.
India’s agricultural landscape is a vibrant blend of traditional and modern farming practices, with diverse crops and deep rooted cultural traditions. From the golden wheat fields of Punjab, the saffron valley of Kashmir, the lush tea gardens of the Northeast or the Nilgiris to the emerald paddy fields of Kerala, agriculture has long been a fundamental part of the nation’s identity.
Growing crops is dependent on several factors — the soil, the climate, the availability of water, the terrain, and so on.
Echoes from the Past
The story of Indian farming goes back to prehistory. Archaeological investigations have shown the presence of rice grains in the Ganga Plain as early as the 7th or 8th millennium BCE. Some experts have, however, pointed out that this need not mean that rice cultivation was already systematic; that may have taken a few more millennia to be mastered. At Mehrgarh (in Baluchistan, a site antecedent of the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation), the cultivation of barley and millets is also dated to the 7th millennium BCE. Later, barley and wheat were the staple crops of the Harappans; several Harappan sites also point to the presence of rice in the 3rd millennium BCE, at least in some regions, apart from millets and several vegetables.
Over time, farmers learned to cultivate oilseeds (such as sesame, safflower, linseed, mustard, and castor), legumes (green gram, black gram, and fenugreek), fibre crops (cotton, hemp, jute), more vegetables, and fruits (grapes, dates, jujube, jackfruit, mango, mulberry, and black plum).
The Vedas also mention yava (barley), godhūma (wheat) and vrīhi (rice) as well as other crops such as sesame, black gram, and various types of pulses and legumes.
Intercropping: the practice of growing two or more different crops simultaneously.
Intercropping at the Harappan site of Kalibangan (Rajasthan) around 2800 BCE, as evidenced by perpendicular furrows. (Bottom) The same practice continuing in the 1960s, around 4800 years later!
This period also saw the domestication of animals. Cattle, asses, sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, fowl, and other animals were domesticated from the pre-urban phase of the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation (c. 3500 BCE).
Grafting: A technique that joins one plant with another to grow as a single plant enabling the combining of desirable traits like resistance to pests or sweetness of the fruit.
In the historical period, ancient Indian texts provide a wealth of information on agriculture. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra, the Sangam literature of the early Tamils, Amarakoṣha, Kṛiṣhiparāśhara, Varāhamihira’s Bṛihatsamhitā, and Surapāla’s Vṛikṣhāyurveda, among others, contain writings on agriculture, horticulture, and plant biodiversity.
Surapāla’s Vṛikṣhāyurveda provides recommendations on seed preparation, soil cultivation methods, planting techniques, and more. “Seeds sprinkled with milk, rubbed with cow dung, dried and profusely smeared with maksika (honey) and bidanga (false black pepper) definitely sprout.”
The Bṛihatsamhitā describes a method of grafting still in use today.
Climate, Seasons, and Crops: What Grows Where and When?
In the words of Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim travelling in India in the 7th century (you will meet him later in this book), “The climate and the quality of the soil being different according to situation, the produce of the land is various in its character.
The types of climates in India are:
Alpine – the Himalayas
Temperate – the lower Himalayas
Subtropical – the northern plains
Arid – the Thar Desert
Tropical wet – western coastal strip
Semi-arid – central Deccan Plateau
Tropical – eastern India and the southern peninsula
India is divided into 15 agroclimatic zones. In simple terms, climate factors, different types of soil and terrain, and types of vegetation are combined to create these categories. A few examples of agroclimatic zones are the Upper Gangetic Plain Region, Southern Plateau and Hills Region, and Western Dry Region.
The monsoon and agriculture
The Indian monsoon system is a key factor in the country’s agricultural diversity. It brings rainfall, which is vital for many crops. India experiences the southwest monsoon and the northeast monsoon.
The southwest monsoon brings rain from June to September. It is crucial for the seasonal growth of kharif crops in northern and central India. The northeast monsoon prevails from October to December. This brings rainfall to the east and south of India. Coastal regions, including the Malabar (Kerala) and Coromandel (Tamil Nadu) plains, receive rainfall from both the southwest and northeast monsoons.
The rain from these two monsoon periods enables farmers in the south to grow crops during the period in between; this is a dry season for farmers in north India who depend on other sources of water like groundwater, water from rivers, canals and ponds, and moisture retained in the soil, to ensure irrigation for their crops. States like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh grow rice throughout the year on account of availability of water from the monsoon as well as irrigation.
The rhythm of seasons and crops: kharif, rabi, and zaid
Indian agriculture is mainly divided into three cropping seasons: kharif, rabi, and zaid.
rabi season (winter crops) kharif season (monsoon crops) zaid season (summer crops)
Rabi Crops – Wheat barley peas mustard gram
Kharif Crops – rice maize jowar bajra groundnut sugarcane cotton
Zaid Crops – Watermelon cucumber muskmelon pumpkin
Before the Arabic terms for the three types of crops became more widely used, they were called kedāra (wet crops), haimana (winter crops), and graiṣhmika (summer crops).
The Arthaśhāstra contains sections on agriculture, including the preparation of land and seeds, as well as payment to farmers and other relevant topics. “A good rainy season is one when one-third of the annual rainfall occurs at the beginning (Śhrāvaṇa — July-August) and at the end of the season (Kārtika — October-November), and two-thirds in the middle (Prauṣhṭhapada — August-September and Āśhvayuja — September-October).”
Soil, the Foundation of Cultivation.
Soil is the thin, upper layer of the Earth’s crust that supports plant life. It is formed over millions of years through the breakdown of rocks and the decay of organic matter. It’s the most essential resource for farmers, as it provides the necessary nutrients, water, and support for crops to grow. This section examines the various soils found in the Indian subcontinent and their associations with specific crops.
Humus: Humus is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Latin word for ‘earth’ or ‘soil’.
Soils of India India has a diverse range of soil types, each with its distinct properties. Ancient texts, such as the Amarakoṣha, describe twelve types of agricultural land based on soil fertility. Today, we classify the soils of India into six major types: alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, desert soil, and mountain / alpine soil.
The type of soil
Sandy soil: made up mostly of small grains of sand; when a little bit of water, air and organic matter mix, it becomes sandy soil
Alpine soil: formed by the freezing and melting of ice which leads to weathering of rock; the soil is thin, rough and rocky
Sandy soil: made up mostly of small grains of sand; when a little bit of water, air and organic matter mix, it becomes sandy soil Alpine soil: formed by the freezing and melting of ice which leads to weathering of rock; the soil is thin, rough and rocky
Black soil or cotton soil: formed by the weathering of volcanic rocks; holds a lot of moisture and is very fertile
Red soil: formed by weathering of lava (that has cooled slowly) or of old rocks; they are red because they have a chemical called iron; when iron reacts with air and water it becomes reddish in colour; not very fertile
Laterite soil or brick earth: formed by the weathering of rock by rain; becomes hard in hot weather. Most minerals get washed away leaving largely iron and aluminium, react with air and water and give reddish colour; not fertile
Alluvial soil: Silt deposits (mud, sand and other fine particles) brought by rivers from the mountains and plateaus; rich in nutrients.
Weathering: Refers to the process by which rocks and minerals are broken down into soil particles through physical, chemical, or biological means.
Silt: A finegrained, dust-like sediment composed of rock and mineral particles that are larger than clay but smaller than sand. As a result, they are easily transported by rivers from the mountains to the plains.
Bedrock: Bedrock refers to the original rock from which new rocks and soils are derived through weathering, erosion, and other processes.
Nurturing the soil
Healthy soil is crucial for a good harvest. Soil is a complex ecosystem with organisms like bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and insects. It has minerals, organic matter (humus), water, and air.
Soil conservation: It refers to the practice of managing soil to prevent its degradation and preserve its productivity.
Traditional methods-
Our ancestors employed numerous ingenious techniques to protect the soil. Crop rotation is one such method, where different types of crops are grown in the same field in different seasons to prevent the soil from losing specific nutrients. Equally important was multiple cropping where multiple crops were grown in the same field. This reduced the risk of pests and also ensured at least one crop. The crops were chosen in such a way that there would be periodic harvests from the same field. Another practice is contour ploughing, which involves ploughing along the natural curves of a hill slope to avoid soil erosion from rainwater. Farmers also used organic fertilisers, such as cow dung, to replenish the soil’s nutrients.
panchagavya is a fermented mixture of five cow products: dung, urine, milk, curd, and ghee? Recent studies have shown that it acts as a biofertiliser, enhancing crop growth and productivity while increasing their resistance to diseases.
Contemporary approaches: Today, modern techniques such as terracing are used in hilly areas to create flat steps for farming, which slows down water runoff and reduces soil erosion. Afforestation, or planting trees, is another method that helps to prevent soil erosion. Some traditional methods like mulching, ploughing back crop residue, are still practised by farmers today. Very precise application of fertilisers enables their efficient use and also maintains soil health.
Greenhouse: A transparent covered structure made of glass or plastic that captures sunlight and heat for the growth of plants in a controlled environment.
Water: Rain-Fed vs. Irrigated Agriculture
This section examines two primary types of irrigation practices: rain-fed and irrigated. a. Rain-fed agriculture b. Irrigated agriculture
a. Rain-fed agriculture
Rain-fed agriculture refers to farming practices that rely entirely on rainfall. This type of farming is common in areas that receive sufficient rain during the monsoon season. To cope with these challenges, they have developed various adaptations, such as choosing drought-resistant crops or utilising traditional water-harvesting techniques.
b. Irrigated agriculture
Irrigated agriculture uses artificial methods to supply water to crops. This type of irrigation is crucial for enhancing farm productivity and reducing reliance on monsoon rains.
Throughout the country, a rich vocabulary of water structures developed, such as kull, kund, ahar, pokhar, khadin, arakere, koḷam, surangam, taḍāgam, and eri, to name a few.
Some traditional irrigation systems include phad systems, and bamboo drip irrigation.
Phad systems are community-based irrigation systems, particularly found in the state of Maharashtra. These systems use small canals to divert river water to fields.
Bamboo drip irrigation is practised in parts of northeastern India. Here, farmers traditionally use bamboo pipes to channel water from springs to their fields.
Kallanai, the grand anicut, built by Karikāla across the Kaveri River about 1,800 years ago. It is a massive and effective water-diverting structure that irrigates thousands of hectares of land.
Modern irrigation techniques include drip and sprinkler irrigation.
Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, delivers water slowly and directly to the plant’s roots through a network of tubes and emitters.
Sprinkler irrigation sprays water into the air, which falls over the crops like artificial rain.
These modern methods help in using water more efficiently. This is very necessary as in many parts of India, groundwater reserves are fast decreasing.
Seeds One key component of farming is seeds. Seeds have been passed down in families from generation to generation, preserved at the community level, and shared. In some areas women also carry them as part of the gifts they bring to their marital home. High-yielding seeds were carefully selected and preserved for use during the next planting season.
The Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed methods for the use of a paste called beejamrit made of cow dung and urine, combined with other materials, to coat seeds before planting. This protects seeds from being spoilt and also reduces germination time.
The Indian seed drill is an ingenious invention of ancient Indian farmers. These seed drills combined soil preparation, seed planting, and the closing of the furrow in one operation. This reduced the labour involved in what would have been a three-step operation.
Agricultural Practices: Traditional Wisdom and Modern Innovations.
Traditional farming systems Contemporary agriculture Sustainable pathways
Traditional farming systems
Traditional farming typically involves small-scale, resource-reliant methods that are closely tied to the environment. Terrace farming is an example.
Terrace farming is an example. This is a method used on hilly slopes. Farmers cut steps or terraces into the hillside to create flat land for agriculture, which helps to prevent soil erosion and conserve water.
Traditional agriculture considers the plant and the soil (including the whole soil ecosystem) as a complete system. The soil is considered to be the primary source of nutrients, along with other sources of plant nutrients supplied in the form of farmyard manure.
Traditional farming systems are usually aligned with natural cycles, such as the ṛitu chakra (cycle of seasons), and often rely on family involvement and domestic animals. Examples include kulāgar and gokṛiṣhi.
Kulāgar: This term comes from the Konkani words ‘kula’ meaning ‘family’ and ‘āgar’ meaning ‘storehouse’. It is a traditional homestead farming system where families cultivate a variety of crops, including food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables, spices, and medicinal plants, around their homes by designing a structured irrigated system. This practice is common in the Konkan Plains (Goa) of India.
Gokṛiṣhi: This is a holistic method in which cows provide manure, which is used as organic fertiliser, and bullocks are used to plough the fields.
Contemporary agriculture
Contemporary agriculture is characterised by modern farming methods that use technology, machinery, and new farming techniques. A significant turning point was the Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s. This movement introduced:
high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds,
increased irrigation,
chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and
mechanised equipment, among others.
M.S. Swaminathan, architect of the Green Revolution, recipient of Bharat Ratna
This revolution led to a significant increase in food grain production, particularly of wheat and rice, and India achieved self-sufficiency in food.
the Green Revolution have become visible — the long-term impoverishment of the soil, depletion of groundwater, contamination of the soil and water by pesticides and fertilisers, damage to human and animal health (including multiplication of cancer cases in rural areas, as many scientific studies have established), among others.
Sustainable pathways
This approach is inspired by Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) and focuses on environment-friendly, long-lasting farming practices. One example is the resurgence of organic farming, which avoids the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Instead, it relies on natural fertilisers, such as compost, seed cake (residue after oil has been extracted from seeds) and manure from animal sources. Another example is the use of neem-based pesticides, which are natural and much less harmful to the environment than chemical ones.
Sikkim is the world’s first 100 per cent organic state. It adopted an organic farming model for sustainable agriculture by banning in 2014 chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and focusing on natural farming practices.
The Green Revolution has not been without long term harmful effects. The use of chemicals pollutes water sources (they dissolve and enter water), and disrupts the ecosystem by harming important creatures like bees which are so necessary for pollination.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has recognised three globally significant agricultural heritage systems in India. The farming of saffron in Kashmir, the traditional agricultural systems of Odisha that integrate forest management, and the below-sea-level agricultural methods in Kerala, which includes crop plantation and fishing.
Hydroponics is a method by which plants are grown in nutrient-rich water solutions; essential minerals are given directly to the roots.
The Role of the Government
In many states, the government has a support system to help farmers access seeds, fertilisers and pesticides, information on the weather forecast, research and training on new farming practices, and so on.
The government also provides electricity for irrigation at lower prices, to reduce input costs. Farmers can access financial assistance through schemes for crop insurance like the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana. Finally, the government purchases important crops from farmers to ensure that they have no difficulty marketing their produce and get fair prices.
The promotion of cold storages, and better access to information and markets through the use of digital technology, enable farmers to get better prices for their produce.
Challenges
Indian farmers face several challenges. One of them has been the decreasing size of landholding as land gets divided among family members over generations. The average landholding is approximately three-fourths of a hectare; this is about the size of an average football field.
Hectare: 1 hectare = 10,000 square metres. (The old unit of an acre, about 4047 square metres, is still widely in use in India.)
Landholding: An area of land that a person owns.
Traditionally, families in farming have different sources of income beyond the crops they grow. They rear cows, goats, poultry, practise apiculture or fishing, and so on. Where possible, they collect forest produce. Many grow trees on the bunds for fruit and timber. Diversity builds resilience. However, today this is proving to be inadequate to provide a decent quality of life to farmers.
Farmers also face one of the biggest challenges of our time, climate change. With increasing unpredictability of weather patterns (for instance, untimely rains), and more frequent extreme events (such as severe droughts or heavy rainfall), farmers face a higher risk of crop destruction, leading at times to heavy losses. This trend is likely to get worse as our planet gets rapidly warmer.
Such challenges and a few more have often led farmers to take loans in times of hardship, only to find that paying those loans back was difficult and catching them in a debt trap. As a result, many farmers — as many as 2,300 every day, according to some estimates — have been compelled to abandon agriculture.
The Ganga river has been under stress and is increasingly unable to replenish itself; parts of it are no longer navigable in summer as the water level is too low even for river boats. The causes are multiple:
global warming is causing Himalayan glaciers to melt at an unprecedented rate; much water is diverted to irrigation; agriculture and industry pump out huge amounts of groundwater; and hundreds of dams interfere with the river’s natural flow. Solutions exist, but if this condition of Ganga persists, agriculture in its basin may become less and less sustainable, threatening the livelihood of millions and India’s food production